Thread and Multiprocessing Pools are an underused feature of Python. In my opinion, they are the easiest way to dip your feet into concurrency, and yet still the method I use most often.
Threads in a Pool, Artwork by Clara Griffith
They allow you to easily offload CPU or I/O bound tasks to a pre-instantiated group (pool) of threads or processes. One of the great things about them, is that both the ThreadPool and Pool (Multiprocessing) classes have the same methods, so all the following examples are interchangeable between them. (This article will not get into the differences between Threading and Multiprocessing in Python, as that is worth a post on its own.)
Map
Let’s jump in with a super simple example. We will use a pool of 5 workers to square numbers. We will use the map method which takes a function as it’s first argument (make sure it’s not called, no parentheses!) then a list (or iterable) of arguments, which will be passed singularly to that function per Thread or Process. That way, multiple instances of that function are working at the same time!
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool, Pool
def square_it(x):
return x*x
# On Windows, make sure that multiprocessing doesn't start
# until after "if __name__ == '__main__'"
with Pool(processes=5) as pool:
results = pool.map(square_it, [5, 4, 3, 2 ,1])
print(results)
# [25, 16, 9, 4, 1] Think of map as running a for loop over the list and sending each item in it to a worker process as soon as it is free (little more complicated internally, but we’ll come back to that later). Each process has been told to run the function square_it against that item.
So in this case, all the processes will be running the same function against a set of data, and waiting until all the data has been processed to return. The list of returned data will be in order based on the iterable that was put in. This is super handy if you want to do something like make a lot of requests to different websites and wait for the results, or need to run a lot of calculations. I actually did just that in the Birthday Paradox blog post using the Multiprocessing pool to speed up probability calculations.
Thankfully, Pools are versatile, they have several other handy methods, and you can let most of them run in the background, instead of waiting on it to finish immediately, by going asynchronous.
Async
So lets use the map style functionality again, but this time we want to not bother waiting around for the results, which means we need to use map_async. Lets say you want to capture a lot of images off of a website. You populate the list of links to the images ,then you just need to add those to the pool and download them.
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
import time
import reusables
# When downloading from a website, be kind with how often
# and how many requests you are making
tp = ThreadPool(processes=2)
urls = ["https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/birthday.png",
"https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Capture.png"]
# Same as the previous map, taking a function and iterable,
# just with an additional callback function
tp.map_async(reusables.download, urls, callback=print)
# Also, this is why having print as a function in python 3 is so dang handy
# Do something else
time.sleep(10)
# Results are printed when done
# ['/home/me/birthday.png', '/home/me/Capture.png']
# Not using a context manager means we have to clean house ourselves.
tp.terminate()
tp.close()
This is really advantageous in scenarios where you need an instant reply, such as an API call or working with a GUI. Then later a callback can either update the GUI or database. There is also an error_callback argument it can take if the function raises an exception. The error_callback function will receive the Exception caught when the worker erred, that way you can decide if you want to ignore it, or raise it in the main Thread.
You can also ignore using the callbacks, and deal with the AsyncResult directly. It has the methods:
ready– See if the results are availablesuccess– Boolean, True if it didn’t raise an exceptionwait– takes a timeout, will wait for the results to be readyget– Grab the results, also takes a timeout, will automatically raise the exception if one occurred.
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
import time
timeout = 25
with ThreadPool(processes=4) as tp:
async_result = tp.map_async(time.sleep, [5, 4])
for i in range(timeout):
time.sleep(1)
if async_result.ready():
if async_result.successful():
print(async_result.get())
break
else:
print("Task did not complete on time, or with errors")
Three of the method’s available have corresponding async methods:
map–map_asyncstarmap–starmap_asyncapply–apply_async
Passing additional arguments with “partial” or “starmap”
Now, notice that map will only provide a single argument to a function. So if you have a function that takes more than one argument, you will either need to use partial to redefine the function with default parameters, or use starmap which takes an iterable of tuples.
So lets use partial from functools first.
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
from functools import partial
import time
import reusables
urls = ["https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/birthday.png",
"https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Capture.png"]
def download_file(url, wait_time):
time.sleep(wait_time)
return reusables.download(url)
# Replace the required `wait_time` with a default of 5
down_the_file = partial(download_file, wait_time=5)
with ThreadPool(2) as tp:
# Notice we are now using the new function, down_the_file we created with partial
print(tp.map(down_the_file, urls)) Not too difficult, just you’re stuck with using the same setting for everything. If you want to customize it, you can send multiple arguments using starmap.
Starmap
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
import reusables
import time
# Notice the list now is a list of tuples, that have a second argument,
# that will be passed in as the second parameter. In this case, as wait_time
urls = [("https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/birthday.png", 4),
("https://codecalamity.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Capture.png", 10)]
def download_file(url, wait_time):
time.sleep(wait_time)
return reusables.download(url)
with ThreadPool(2) as tp:
# Using `starmap` instead of just `map`
print(tp.starmap(download_file, urls))
Apply
Both map and starmap take a single function to run a lot of things against. But there are many times where you just want background workers to take on a variety of different tasks. That’s where apply comes in.
from multiprocessing.pool import Pool
import reusables
pool = Pool(processes=5)
# apply takes `args`, aka arguments, in a tuple format
# and `kwds`, aka keyword arguments, as a dictionary
print(pool.apply(sum, args=([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], )))
# 15
print(pool.apply(abs, (-5.67, )))
# 5.67
print(pool.apply(reusables.download,
args=("http://example.com", ),
kwds=dict(save_to_file=False)))
# b'<!doctype html>\n<html>\n<head>\n ...
pool.terminate()
pool.close()
Additional Content
You can of course also mix and match any methods while the pool is still not terminated.
from multiprocessing.pool import Pool import time pool = Pool(processes=5) print(pool.apply(sum, args=([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], ))) # 15 pool.apply_async(abs, (-5.67, ), callback=print) # 5.67 pool.map_async(any, [(True, False), (False, False)], callback=print) # [True, False] time.sleep(1) pool.terminate() pool.close()
imap
Now remember how I said map basically iterates over the list and send each one to a worker? Well that’s not entirely true. imap does that, map can be a lot faster because it breaks the list into chunks first and sends each to a worker’s queue to make sure it always has something in the pipeline.
Ok, cool, so map is faster, what’s the point of imap then? With speed comes the price of a larger memory footprint. When map takes in an interable, it converts it to a list to a list so it can be chucked out, whereas imap will only pull items out of the iterable as needed (it defaults to 1 for chunksize, aka how many it will pull out, but it can be increased). It also has the advantage of giving you the results as soon as possible (as an iterable, hence the name imap), while still preserving order. There is also imap_unordered which will simply give you the results as fast as they come, in the order they finish.
from multiprocessing.pool import ThreadPool
import time
def wait(x):
time.sleep(x)
return x
iterable = [0, 4, 5, 2]
with ThreadPool(processes=4) as tp:
print("map")
map_start = time.time()
for map_result in tp.map(wait, iterable):
print(f"{map_result} took {time.time() - map_start:.0f} seconds")
print("\nimap")
imap_start = time.time()
for imap_result in tp.imap(wait, iterable):
print(f"{imap_result} took {time.time() - imap_start:.0f} seconds")
print("\nimap_unordered")
imap_unordered_start = time.time()
for imap_un_result in tp.imap_unordered(wait, iterable):
print(f"{imap_un_result} took"
f"{time.time() - imap_unordered_start:.0f} seconds") Using map it will wait all 5 seconds (the largest wait time in the argument list) to return all the results at once.
map 0 took 5 seconds 4 took 5 seconds 5 took 5 seconds 2 took 5 seconds
imap will immediately return the 0 result, then four seconds later will return the 4, one second later it will return 5 and 2 at the same time.
imap 0 took 0 seconds 4 took 4 seconds 5 took 5 seconds 2 took 5 seconds
imap_unordered will return them as soon as each one finishes. (Notice this won’t always be the shortest one first, as the argument list may be longer than the number of worker processes).
imap_unordered 0 took 0 seconds 2 took 2 seconds 4 took 4 seconds 5 took 5 seconds
The Methods
Here are the methods, their parameters and docstring, and an overview of what they are.
map
map(func, iterable, chunksize=None):
''' Apply `func` to each element in `iterable`, collecting the results
in a list that is returned. '''
map takes an interable and turns it into a list, then breaks it up to send to worker processes. Each worker process will run the function given as the first argument with a single argument (given to it from the iterable). The results will be collected into a list and returned, in order, when all results finish. Returns a list.
starmap
starmap(func, iterable, chunksize=None):
''' Like `map()` method but the elements of the `iterable` are expected to
be iterables as well and will be unpacked as arguments. Hence
`func` and (a, b) becomes func(a, b). ''' starmap allows multiple arguments to be given to the function by passing in an iterable of iterables (i.e. list of tuples, list of lists, generator of generators, etc..). The inner iterables do NOT have to be the same length either, so multiple defaults could be overridden for one item of the list, but not for all of them. Returns a list.
apply
apply(func, args=(), kwds={}):
''' Equivalent of `func(*args, **kwds)`. ''' apply runs a single function with one of the pool’s workers. Returns the result of the function.
imap
imap(func, iterable, chunksize=1):
''' Equivalent of `map()` -- can be MUCH slower than `Pool.map()`. ''' imap takes the same arguments as map, however it’s result is iterable and will start returning results, in order, as soon as they have finished. Returns an interable.
imap_unordered
imap_unordered(self, func, iterable, chunksize=1):
''' Like `imap()` method but ordering of results is arbitrary. ''' imap_unordered is the same as imap except it will return each result as soon as it finishes, not in order. Returns an interable.
The Asynchronous Methods
The asynchronous versions of map, starmap, and apply all take the same parameters as their original functions, as well as a callback and error_callback parameters.
callback– function that takes a single argument, that will be the result(s) of the function(s) run.error_callback– function that takes a single argument, which will be the Exception raised (if one occurs).
The async methods immediately return an AsyncResult (also called ApplyResult or sub-classed to MapResult) that can be directly used to view the results and check on its status. (View the Async section above for an example).
ready– See if the results are availablesuccess– Boolean, True if it didn’t raise an exceptionwait– takes a timeout, will wait for the results to be readyget– Grab the results, also takes a timeout, will automatically raise the exception if one occurred.
map_async
map_async(func, iterable, chunksize=None, callback=None, error_callback=None):
''' Asynchronous version of `map()` method. ''' starmap_async
starmap_async(func, iterable, chunksize=None, callback=None, error_callback=None):
''' Asynchronous version of `starmap()` method. ''' apply_async
apply_async(func, args=(), kwds={}, callback=None, error_callback=None):
''' Asynchronous version of `apply()` method. ''' 
